anneal
in molecular biology, the process by which two single strands of DNA hydrogen bond at complementary nucleotides to form a double-stranded molecule
The process of forming hydrogen bonds between complementary sequences on single strands to form double-stranded DNA is called annealing.
biotechnology
the use of artificial methods to modify the genetic material of living organisms or cells to produce novel compounds or to perform new functions
These advances, as well as advances in our understanding of and ability to manipulate cells, have led some to refer to the twenty-first century as the biotechnology century.
cloning
the production of an exact copy—specifically, an exact genetic copy—of a gene, cell, or organism
In general, cloning means the creation of a perfect replica.
gel electrophoresis
a technique used to separate molecules on the basis of their ability to migrate through a semisolid gel in response to an electric current
Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate charged molecules on the basis of size and charge.
genetic engineering
alteration of the genetic makeup of an organism using the molecular methods of biotechnology genetically modified organism (GMO): an organism whose genome has been artificially changed
Using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organism’s DNA to achieve desirable traits is called genetic engineering.
plasmid
a small circular molecule of DNA found in bacteria that replicates independently of the main bacterial chromosome; plasmids code for some important traits for bacteria and can be used as vectors to transport DNA into bacteria in genetic engineering applications
To get the DNA fragment into a bacterial cell in a form that will be copied or expressed, the fragment is first inserted into a plasmid.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
a technique used to make multiple copies of DNA
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to rapidly increase the number of copies of specific regions of DNA for further analyses (Figure 10.4).
recombinant DNA
a combination of DNA fragments generated by molecular cloning that does not exist in nature strong>recombinant protein: a protein that is expressed from recombinant DNA molecules
Plasmids with foreign DNA inserted into them are called recombinant DNA molecules because they contain new combinations of genetic material.
restriction enzyme
an enzyme that recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA and cuts the DNA double strand at that recognition site, often with a staggered cut leaving short single strands or “sticky” ends
These plasmid vectors contain many short DNA sequences that can be cut with different commonly available restriction enzymes.
reverse genetics
a form of genetic analysis that manipulates DNA to disrupt or affect the product of a gene to analyze the gene’s function
This technique, called reverse genetics, has resulted in reversing the classical genetic methodology.
reproductive cloning
cloning of entire organisms
In biology, the re-creation of a whole organism is referred to as “reproductive cloning.”
transgenic
describing an organism that receives DNA from a different species
If the foreign DNA that is introduced comes from a different species, the host organism is called transgenic.
gene therapy
the technique used to cure heritable diseases by replacing mutant genes with good genes
Gene therapy is a genetic engineering technique that may one day be used to cure certain genetic diseases.
genetic testing
identifying gene variants in an individual that may lead to a genetic disease in that individual
The process of testing for suspected genetic defects before administering treatment is called genetic diagnosis by genetic testing.
biomarker
an individual protein that is uniquely produced in a diseased state
An individual protein is called a biomarker, whereas a set of proteins with altered expression levels is called a protein signature.
genetic map
an outline of genes and their location on a chromosome that is based on recombination frequencies between markers
A genetic map is an illustration that lists genes and their location on a chromosome.
genomics
the study of entire genomes, including the complete set of genes, their nucleotide sequence and organization, and their interactions within a species and with other species
The study of nucleic acids began with the discovery of DNA, progressed to the study of genes and small fragments, and has now exploded to the field of genomics.
metagenomics
the study of the collective genomes of multiple species that grow and interact in an environmental niche
Genomics is now being used in a wide variety of fields, such as metagenomics, pharmacogenomics, and mitochondrial genomics.
model organism
a species that is studied and used as a model to understand the biological processes in other species represented by the model organism
Genomic mapping is used with different model organisms that are used for research.
pharmacogenomics
the study of drug interactions with the genome or proteome; also called toxicogenomics
Genomics is now being used in a wide variety of fields, such as metagenomics, pharmacogenomics, and mitochondrial genomics.
physical map
a representation of the physical distance between genes or genetic markers
Physical maps get into the intimate details of smaller regions of the chromosomes (similar to a detailed road map) (Figure 10.11).
protein signature
a set of over- or under-expressed proteins characteristic of cells in a particular diseased tissue
An individual protein is called a biomarker, whereas a set of proteins with altered expression levels is called a protein signature.
proteomics
study of the function of proteomes
The study of the function of proteomes is called proteomics.
whole genome sequencing
a process that determines the nucleotide sequence of an entire genome
Whole genome sequencing is a process that determines the DNA sequence of an entire genome.
These terms were extracted from Concepts of Biology – 1st Canadian Edition by Charles Molnar and Jane Gair, eCampusOntario (originally published by BCcampus) which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Chapter content adapted from Concepts of Biology by OpenStax (© Rice University), licensed under CC BY 4.0.